Establishment of the Mughal Rule (1526–1707 AD)

1. Lineage & Background in Central Asia

Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur ascended the throne of Farghana (Transoxiana) in 1494 at age twelve. Driven out by the Uzbegs, he lost Samarqand and Farghana. Tracing lineage from Timur (paternal side) and Chengiz Khan (maternal side), Babur's dynasty is called Timurids. Facing instability in Central Asia, he directed his expansionist ambitions toward Hindustan from 1517 onwards.

2. Political Conditions in India & Invitations to Invade

Following Sikandar Lodi's death, Ibrahim Lodi faced severe internal discontent. Daulat Khan Lodi (Governor of Punjab) and Rana Sanga (Rajput king of Mewar) sent invitations to Babur to invade India, hoping to weaken Ibrahim Lodi. Babur captured Bhira (1519–20), Sialkot (1520), and Lahore (1524) before advancing to the Gangetic plains.

3. First Battle of Panipat (April 21, 1526)

Babur's disciplined army of 12,000 defeated Ibrahim Lodi's vast force of 100,000 soldiers using the Rumi (Ottoman) method of warfare:

• Tactical Encirclement (Tulghuma): Flanked enemy lines from both sides with swift horse archers.
• Center Defense: Entrenched barricades and carts protecting expert Ottoman gunners (artillery and musketry).
• Result: Ibrahim Lodi died on the battlefield. Babur captured Delhi and Agra, distributing the Lodi treasures among his officers.

4. Consolidation Battles: Khanwa (1527) & Chanderi (1528)

1. Humayun's Administrative Challenges

Succeeding Babur in 1530, Humayun faced severe structural vulnerabilities: unconsolidated territories, lack of Mughal noble loyalty, power-sharing disputes with brothers (Kamran holding Punjab/Kabul; Askari and Hindal), and external dual threats from Bahadur Shah of Gujarat in the west and Sher Khan (Sher Shah Suri) in Bihar/Bengal.

2. Rise of Sher Shah Suri & Mughal Defeats

Farid (Sher Khan), son of Hasan Khan Sur (Jagirdar of Sasaram), mastered administrative and military skills. After defeating Sultan Mahmud Shah of Bengal at the Battle of Surajgarh, Sher Khan seized Gaur (1538) and blocked Mughal communication channels.

3. Second Afghan Empire & Humayun's Restoration

Sher Shah (1540–1545) consolidated control from Sindh/Punjab to Bengal and Malwa. He died in 1545 during an accidental gunpowder explosion at the Siege of Kalinjar. Following the death of his son Islam Shah (1553), Afghan noble factions weakened the state. Humayun invaded in 1555, re-capturing Lahore, Delhi, and Agra. Humayun died in 1556 after falling down the library stairs at Sher Mandal in Delhi.

1. Coronation & Regency of Bairam Khan (1556–1560)

Thirteen-year-old Akbar was crowned at Kalanaur (Punjab) in 1556 under tutor Bairam Khan (Khan-i-Khanan). Bairam Khan defeated Hemu at the Second Battle of Panipat (1556). In 1560, Akbar dismissed Bairam Khan to assume full sovereign authority.

2. Systematic Expansion Campaigns

• Central India (1560–1564): Conquered Gwalior, Malwa (defeating Baz Bahadur), and Gondwana (defeating Rani Durgawati).
• Rajasthan Policy: Combined diplomatic matrimonial alliances (Raja Bharmal of Amber was first) with military subjugation. Besieged Chittor against Maharana Pratap of Mewar; captured Ranthambhor, Kalinjar, Marwar, Bikaner, and Jaisalmer by 1570.
• Gujarat Campaign (1572–1573): Captured Surat port to control horse imports and revenues. When rebels revolted, Akbar conducted a legendary rapid 10-day march from Agra to Ahmedabad to crush the uprising.
• Bengal & Bihar (1574–1576): Subdued Afghan leaders; Raja Man Singh annexed Orissa in 1592.
• North-West Frontier (1585–1595): Suppressed the Roshanai tribal rebellion (where Raja Birbal was killed); annexed Kashmir (1586), Sindh/Thatta (1590), and Qandhar (1595).
• Deccan Conquests: Invaded Ahmednagar (defended heroically by Chand Bibi, who ceded Berar); later captured Ahmednagar fort, Burhanpur, and Asirgarh.

1. Jahangir & Resistance of Malik Ambar

Jahangir faced stiff opposition in Deccan from Malik Ambar (Abyssinian military commander and Peshwa/Wakil of Ahmednagar). Malik Ambar used guerrilla tactics and joined forces with Bijapur to recapture Balaghat and Berar. No new territories were added under Jahangir.

2. Shah Jahan & The Treaties of 1636

Shah Jahan adopted an aggressive policy to isolate Ahmednagar. In 1636, formal peace treaties were imposed on Bijapur and Golconda:

• Bijapur Treaty: Accepted Mughal suzerainty, paid 20 lakh rupees indemnity, agreed not to interfere in Golconda, and assisted Mughals against Shahji Bhonsle.
• Golconda Treaty: Included Mughal Emperor's name in Khutba (omitting the Shah of Iran) and paid annual tribute of 2 lakh huns.

3. Aurangzeb's Three Deccan Phases & Annexation

Professor Satish Chandra divides Aurangzeb's Deccan policy into 3 distinct phases:

1. The Maratha Challenge under Shivaji

Shivaji started offensive operations in 1656 (capturing Javli) and killed Bijapur general Afzal Khan in 1559. In 1665, Raja Jai Singh forced Shivaji to sign the Treaty of Purandhar:

• Shivaji surrendered 23 out of 35 forts (yielding 4 lakh huns revenue) to Mughals, retaining 12 forts.
• Imprisoned at Agra court in 1666, Shivaji escaped and resumed warfare. In 1674, he was crowned at Raigarh taking the title Chhatrapati.

Following Sambhaji's execution (1689), Tara Bai (regent for Shivaji III) organized heroic guerrilla resistance, frustrating Aurangzeb's forces.

2. Rajput Alienation under Aurangzeb

Unlike Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb interfered in the succession dispute of Marwar (Jodhpur) following Maharaja Jaswant Singh's death. Imperial occupation of Jodhpur alienated the Rathores and Sisodias, stripping the empire of vital Rajput military support.

3. North-East & North-West Frontier Conflicts

In Assam, governor Mir Jumla annexed the Ahom kingdom (1662), and Shaista Khan captured Chatgaon (1664). However, Ahoms recaptured Kamrup by 1680. In the North-West, persistent Safavid Persian conflicts over Qandhar and Shah Jahan's failed Balkh campaign caused massive financial and military losses.