NIOS History (315) • Lesson 9

Establishment & Expansion of Delhi Sultanate (1200–1526 AD)

Interactive Board Exam Study Module
NIOS Senior Secondary History • Code 315

Lesson 9: Establishment & Expansion of the Delhi Sultanate (1200–1526 AD)

An exhaustive, high-yield analysis tracing 300+ years of Turkish & Afghan rule in North India: from early Arab & Ghurid invasions, Mamluk autocracy, Khalji imperial expansion & market regulations, Tughlaq administrative experiments, to Lodi Afghan monarchy and the rise of provincial kingdoms.

01

Early Invasions: Arab Expansion, Mahmud Ghazni & Muhammad Ghori

1. Arab Conquest of Sind (712 AD)

In 712 AD, Muhammad Bin Qasim, a general of the Umayyad Caliphate dispatched by governor Hajjaj of Iraq, invaded Sind. The stated pretext was to avenge the plunder of Arab ships by pirates near Debol after King Dahir of Sind refused punishment. Qasim defeated and killed King Dahir at the Battle of Rawar, occupying Debol and Brahmanabad. While economic life was initially disrupted, many Arabs settled in Sind, establishing lasting cultural and commercial ties.

2. Invasions of Mahmud Ghazni (1000–1026 AD)

Mahmud Ghazni, son of Sabuktigin (Ghaznavid dynasty), launched 17 plundering raids into India between 1000 and 1026 AD. His primary motive was not imperial conquest in India, but acquiring India's legendary wealth to finance and consolidate his vast Central Asian empire. Key milestones include:

  • 1001 AD: Defeated the Hindushahi ruler, Jaipal.
  • 1008 AD: Sacked Nagarkot—regarded as his first monumental triumph.
  • 1014–1019 AD: Plundered temple cities of Thanesar, Mathura, and Kanauj.
  • 1025 AD: Attacked the famous Somnath Temple in Saurashtra (Gujarat). Over 50,000 defenders were slain before Bhima I prepared a counter-offensive, prompting Mahmud's retreat.

3. Muhammad Ghori & Foundations of Turkish Rule (1175–1192 AD)

Unlike Ghazni, Shahabuddin Muhammad Ghori sought permanent political dominion in India. After capturing Multan (1175), Peshawar (1179), and Lahore (1186), Ghori's push into the Gangetic Doab brought him into direct military collision with Prithviraj Chauhan:

First Battle of Tarain (1191 AD)

Prithviraj Chauhan routed Ghori's forces at Tarain; Ghori narrowly escaped death. However, Prithviraj failed to effectively garrison Bhatinda, allowing Ghori time to rebuild.

Second Battle of Tarain (1192 AD)

Turning point in Indian history. Ghori's highly disciplined, swift Turkish cavalry defeated bulky Rajput forces using two superior technical innovations: iron stirrups (providing striking leverage) and iron horseshoes (protecting hooves).

In 1194 AD (Battle of Chandwar), Ghori defeated Jai Chand of Kanauj. Before returning to Ghazni, Ghori entrusted his Indian territories to his trusted slave general, Qutbuddin Aibak.

Exam Point: Ghazni vs. Ghori Comparison

Mahmud Ghazni raided solely to plunder wealth for his Central Asian ambitions, establishing control only over parts of Punjab & Sind. Muhammad Ghori intended territorial annexation, establishing permanent Turkish administrative dominance across Northern India.

02

The Mamluk Sultans (1206–1290 AD): Consolidation & Autocracy

The term Mamluk is an Arabic word meaning "owned", referring to imported military Turkish slave commanders as distinct from domestic slaves.

Qutbuddin Aibak (1206–1210 AD)

Founder of the Delhi Sultanate. Known as "Lakh Baksh" (giver of lakhs) for his lavish generosity. Suppressed rivals Yaldauz (Ghazni) and Qabacha (Multan). Died in 1210 AD from a fall off his horse while playing Chaugan (Polo).

Shamsuddin Iltutmish (1210–1236 AD)

Real consolidator of the Sultanate. Refused refuge to Jalaluddin Mangbarani (son of Khwarizm Shah), saving Delhi from Chenghiz Khan's Mongol wrath. Received Letter of Investiture from Abbasid Caliph in 1229 AD. Introduced Silver Tanka & Copper Jittal coins and the Iqta system.

Raziya Sultan (1236–1240 AD) & The Noble Opposition

Nominated by Iltutmish over his incompetent sons, Raziya was the first female monarch of medieval India. She incurred the wrath of conservative Turkish amirs by creating a counter-nobility of non-Turks and appointing Abyssinian slave Malik Jamaluddin Yaqut as Amir-i-Akhur (Master of the Horses). Accused of violating feminine modesty, she was overthrown and killed in 1240 AD.

Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266–1287 AD): Autocracy & Theory of Kingship

Balban (Ulugh Khan) emerged from the Turkan-i-Chahalgani ("Group of Forty" Turkish nobles created by Iltutmish) and usurped total authority, eventually destroying the Chahalgani. He established an absolute autocratic monarchy to restore crown prestige:

  • Theory of Kingship: Formulated the doctrine that the Sultan was the Shadow of God (Zill-i-Ilahi) on Earth, answerable to God alone. Excluded non-Turks from power.
  • Court Etiquette: Mandated rigid court ceremonies including Sijada (prostration) and Paibos (kissing the monarch's feet). Banned wine, music, and laughter in court.
  • Military & Espionage: Reorganized the central military department (Diwan-i-Arz) and deployed efficient spies (barids) in every province. Ruthlessly suppressed Mewati highway robbers and Bengal governor Tughril Beg's revolt (1279 AD).
03

The Khaljis (1290–1320 AD): Imperial Expansion & Market Reforms

The overthrow of the Mamluks in 1290 AD by Jalaluddin Khalji is termed the 'Dynastic Revolution', breaking the Turkish noble monopoly. Jalaluddin advocated a tolerant state policy based on the "willing support of the governed". He was murdered in 1296 AD by his ambitious nephew, Alauddin Khalji.

Alauddin Khalji's Anti-Rebellion Regulations

Following multiple early revolts, Alauddin identified four root causes: weak spy system, wine consumption, social intermarriages among nobles, and excess private wealth. He issued 4 drastic ordinances:

  1. Confiscated tax-free land grants; converted private wealth into state revenue holdings.
  2. Reorganized and intensified the central intelligence/spy system.
  3. Prohibited the sale and public consumption of wine and intoxicants.
  4. Banned noble gatherings and intermarriages without royal permission.

Market Control System (Price Regulations)

To maintain a huge permanent standing army against Mongol threats without bankrupting the treasury, Alauddin fixed low prices for essential commodities. He set up 3 distinct markets in Delhi:

1. Grain Market (Mandi)

Strict price caps on wheat, barley, rice. State granaries stocked grain collected as tax in Doab.

2. Cloth Market (Sarai Adl)

Centralized market for manufactured goods, silks, imported textiles, sugar, and oils.

3. Horses, Cattle & Slaves

Eliminated middleman brokers (dalals) to ensure low horse prices for army efficiency.

Administrative Control: Each market was headed by a Superintendent (Shahna-i-Mandi), monitored by intelligence officers (barids) and secret child spies (munhiyans). Mutilation and harsh penalties were enforced for underweighing.

Imperial Expansion: North & Deccan Expeditions

  • Gujarat (1299 AD): Ulugh Khan & Nusrat Khan defeated Rai Karan. Somnath temple looted. Malik Kafur (a slave) captured here.
  • Ranthambore (1301 AD): Defeated Hamirdeva who harbored rebel Mongol refugees.
  • Chittor (1303 AD): Besieged fort ruled by Raja Ratan Singh; renamed Khizrabad.
  • Deccan & South India (1306–1311 AD): Led by Malik Kafur (appointed Naib Malik). Defeated Rai Ramachandra of Deogir (given title Rai Rayan), Pratab Rudradeva of Warangal, Vir Ballala III of Dwar Samudra, and plundered Ma'bar (Pandya Kingdom). Alauddin opted for tribute rather than direct annexation in the far South.
04

The Tughlaqs (1320–1412 AD): Direct Annexation & Controversial Schemes

Founded by Ghazi Malik (Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq) in 1320 AD. His successor, Muhammad bin Tughlaq (Juna Khan, 1325–1351 AD), reversed Alauddin's policy by directly annexing Deccan territories (Warangal, Telangana, Ma'bar) into administrative provinces of the Sultanate.

Muhammad bin Tughlaq's Innovative Schemes & Failures

1. Transfer of Capital to Daulatabad (1226–27 AD)

Shifted court elite (shaikhs, nobles, ulema) to Deogir (renamed Daulatabad) to better govern Deccan and protect against Mongol raids. The harsh journey along the newly built highway caused massive loss of life. Abandoned when North India became uncontrollable from the South.

2. Introduction of Token Currency

To offset global silver shortages and empty treasuries, MBT issued copper coins (jittal) pegged at equal value to silver tanka. Lack of state minting monopolies led to rampant local forging in homes. The scheme failed, forcing the treasury to redeem forged copper coins with genuine silver ones.

3. Agriculture Department (Diwan-i-Kohi)

Pioneered agricultural development by granting state loans (taccavi) to peasants for seeds, wells, and crop diversification during famines.

Timur's Invasion (1398 AD) & Collapse

During the reign of Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud Tughlaq, Central Asian conqueror Timur (Tamerlane) invaded India in 1398 AD to plunder accumulated wealth. Timur's forces sacked Delhi, ordering a 15-day general massacre. The invasion shattered the Sultanate's authority; Bengal, Jaunpur, Gujarat, Malwa, and Deccan broke away as independent kingdoms.

05

Sayyids, Lodis & Rise of Provincial Kingdoms

Sayyids (1414–1451 AD) & Lodi Afghan Dynasty (1451–1526 AD)

Khizr Khan, appointed by Timur, founded the Sayyid dynasty (ruling with title Rayat-i-Ala). In 1451 AD, Afghan chief Bahlol Lodi seized power, establishing the first Afghan dynasty in India.

  • Bahlol Lodi (1451–1489 AD): Treated Afghan nobles as equal peers ("first among equals"), sitting on carpets with them rather than on an elevated throne. Annexed Jaunpur (1476 AD).
  • Sikandar Lodi (1489–1517 AD): Re-asserted royal supremacy, enforced court obedience, re-imposed Jaziya, and re-annexed Bihar.
  • Ibrahim Lodi (1517–1526 AD): His autocratic behavior aliened Afghan nobles. Punjab governor Daulat Khan Lodi invited Babur from Kabul. On April 21, 1526 AD, Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat, bringing the Delhi Sultanate to an end.

Prominent Regional Kingdoms

Jaunpur (Sharqi Dynasty)

Founded by Malik Sarwar. Reached zenith under Ibrahim Sharqi; built famous Atala Masjid. Annexed by Bahlol Lodi in 1476 AD.

Kashmir (Zainul Abidin)

Known as "Bud Shah" (Great King). Liberal ruler who abolished Jaziya, banned cow slaughter, and translated Rajatarangini & Mahabharata into Persian.

Gujarat & Malwa

Ahmad Shah founded Ahmedabad in Gujarat. Hoshang Shah made Mandu capital in Malwa (Hindola Mahal, Jahaz Mahal).

Bengal

United under Iliyas Shah. Firuz Tughlaq signed treaty establishing River Kosi as boundary between Delhi and Bengal.

Key Reference Summaries

Dynasty Period Key Founders / Rulers Administrative Highlight
Mamluk (Slave) 1206–1290 AD Qutbuddin Aibak, Iltutmish, Balban Iqta System, Turkan-i-Chahalgani, Theory of Kingship
Khalji 1290–1320 AD Jalaluddin Khalji, Alauddin Khalji Market Control (Mandi/Sarai Adl), Standing Army, Southern Campaigns
Tughlaq 1320–1412 AD Ghiyasuddin, Muhammad bin Tughlaq, Firuz Tughlaq Direct Deccan Annexation, Capital Transfer, Token Currency, Diwan-i-Kohi
Sayyid 1414–1451 AD Khizr Khan (Rayat-i-Ala) Post-Timur vassalage; weak central hold
Lodi 1451–1526 AD Bahlol, Sikandar, Ibrahim Lodi First Afghan Dynasty; peer monarchy to royal autocracy shift