Administrative System and Institutions (1200–1707 AD)

1. The Sultan, Nobility & Ulema

The Sultan was the absolute head of civil administration, supreme commander of the army, and ultimate court of judicial appeal. A council of ministers called Majlis-i-Khalwat assisted him. The Nobility (Umara) held high social status and military power. Iltutmish organized the Turkish slave officers into the Turkan-i-Chahalgani (Group of Forty). Balban later crushed this group to reassert royal autocracy, enforcing strict court protocol (Sijda and Paibos). Under the Lodi Dynasty, the Afghan concept of monarchy treated the Sultan as "first among equals." The Ulema were Muslim religious scholars and legal experts who managed judicial offices (as Qazis) and influenced religious policy.

2. Core Central Ministries

3. Royal Household & Karkhanas

The Wakil-i-Dar managed the personal services of the Sultan and royal household affairs. The Amir-i-Hajib acted as master of ceremonies. The royal needs were met by 36 specialized manufacturing units and storehouses called Karkhanas, supervised by high nobles and immediate managers called Mutasarrifs.

1. Evolution of the Iqta System

The Iqta was an administrative revenue assignment granted to army commanders and nobles (called Iqtadar, Muqti, or Wali) in lieu of cash salaries. The holder collected land revenue from the assigned territory, maintained a required army contingent for the Sultan's service, met personal administrative costs, and was legally bound to remit the surplus revenue balance—known as Fawazil—to the central treasury. Central audit officers called Khwaja assessed income, while secret reporters (Barids) kept watch. Under Firoz Shah Tughlaq, Iqtas were made hereditary, weakening state control.

2. Local Level Administration

Provinces were partitioned into Shiqs (under a Shiqdar), which evolved into Sarkars under the Afghans. Next was the Pargana, administered by the Chaudhary, Amil (revenue collector), and Karkun (accountant). The smallest unit was the village (Mauza), managed by local headmen: Khut, Muqaddam, and Patwari (keeper of village land records).

3. Alauddin Khalji's Price & Market Control Policy

Driven by military necessity to maintain a large standing army against Mongol invasions without exhausting state treasures, Alauddin Khalji fixed the prices of all essential commodities and established three distinct markets in Delhi:

• Mandi (Grain Market): All grains brought from the countryside were sold at strictly regulated official prices. Government granaries were established in Delhi and Chhain (Rajasthan) to prevent artificial scarcity. Transporters (Banjaras / Karwaniyan) were registered and settled on the banks of the Yamuna River.
• Sarai-i-Adl (Cloth & Luxury Market): Centralized storehouse and market for clothes, ghee, oil, sugar, and dry fruits. All merchants were registered, and high-value purchases required official permits to eliminate black marketing.
• Horse, Slave, and Cattle Market: Eliminated powerful middlemen/brokers (Dallals). Horse quality and prices were directly fixed by government officers to guarantee affordable military cavalry supplies.
• Market Enforcement Officers: Overseen by a Superintendent (Shahna-i-Mandi), supported by Barids (checking officers) and Munihiyans (secret spies). Severe punishments, including physical mutilation, were inflicted for under-weighing or price violations.

1. Mughal Central Ministries

The Mughal Emperor was the supreme sovereign holding absolute civil, military, and judicial authority. Key central departments included:

2. Provincial (Suba) & Local (Sarkar / Pargana) Structure

Akbar divided the empire into 12 Subas (provinces), which grew to 20 under Aurangzeb. Each Suba was headed by a Subedar (executive & law/order) working alongside an independent Provincial Diwan (revenue head appointed directly by the Emperor, issuing emergency agricultural loans called Taqavi). At the Sarkar level, executive law enforcement was led by the Faujdar, while revenue collection was headed by the Amalguzar (Amil). At the Pargana level, officers included the Shiqdar (executive officer), Amil (revenue collector), and Quanungo (land record keeper). Port administration was independent, headed by an imperial governor called Mutasaddi.

1. Evolution of the Mansabdari System

Formulated by Akbar, the Mansab (meaning position or rank) was a unified civil-cum-military numerical grading system that fixed official status, personal salary, and required military cavalry contingents. Rank was expressed in two numbers: Zat (personal rank/salary status) and Sawar (number of cavalrymen maintained):

• 1st Class: Sawar rank equals Zat rank (e.g., 5000 Zat / 5000 Sawar).
• 2nd Class: Sawar rank is less than Zat, but equal to or greater than 50% of Zat (e.g., 5000 Zat / 3000 Sawar).
• 3rd Class: Sawar rank is less than 50% of Zat rank (e.g., 5000 Zat / 2000 Sawar).

2. Important Modifications by Subsequent Emperors

3. Types of Mughal Jagirs

Imperial land was divided into Khalisa (direct crown land whose revenue went to the central treasury) and Jagir (land assigned to officers in lieu of cash salary). Jagir types included: Tankha Jagir (transferable every 3–4 years), Watan Jagir (hereditary, non-transferable lands assigned to autonomous Zamindars or Rajputs in their ancestral domains), Mashrut Jagir (conditional), and Altamgha Jagir (granted to Muslim nobles in their birthplaces).

1. The Ashta Pradhan (Council of Eight Ministers)

Shivaji organized central administration under eight ministers who held office at the King's pleasure (neither hereditary nor permanent):

Note: All ministers except Nyayadhish and Pandit Rao were required to lead military expeditions when commanded.

2. Provincial & Local Hierarchy

Provinces were called Prants (headed by a Subedar / Sarsubedar), subdivided into Tarfs (under a Havaldar), and ultimate villages called Mauzas. At the Pargana level, revenue and legal records were kept by the Deshmukh and Deshpande. In villages, the Patil held police/legal authority while the Kulkarni maintained accounts. Brahmin civil administrators called Kamvishdar held wide assessment powers (later serving as the blueprint for the British District Collector).