Lesson 32: Status of Women in Indian Society

1. Historical Perspective and Ancient Period

The textbook presents the status of women through three broad historical periods: Ancient, Medieval and Modern. It explains that tracing women’s status is difficult because systematic records for different social groups and periods began only recently. The ancient period is discussed through four broad sub-periods: the Vedic Period, the Period of the Epics, the Period of Jainism and Buddhism, and the Age of Dharmashastras.

Vedic Period — Core Concept

The early Vedic or Rig Vedic period is identified with approximately 1500–1000 B.C. The textbook does not describe complete equality between men and women, but available evidence shows several comparatively liberal practices. Women participated in religious and social activities, had some freedom to choose a marriage partner, marriage was not compulsory, girls could be initiated into Vedic studies, and a daughter was not regarded as a liability in the parental home. Widow remarriage was also permitted. At the same time, the husband was regarded as superior to the wife and polygyny was permissible.

Period of the Epics

The Ramayana and Mahabharata strongly influenced Hindu social attitudes towards women. The textbook uses Sita and Draupadi as contrasting examples. Sita is presented as an ideal Hindu woman who followed Rama to the forest after surrendering her personal desires. Draupadi is described as showing greater independence and courage. Gandhari’s self-imposed blindness is presented as a sign of respect for her blind husband and as a message concerning a wife’s relationship with her husband.

Jainism and Buddhism

Jainism and Buddhism emerged around the 6th century B.C. as religious reform movements responding to the varna order and ritual dominance. Both provided women opportunities to participate in religious life. Jain women could enter the religious order and become ascetics; Buddhist women could participate in religious discourses and join the Sangha. Women monks also composed verses known as Therigatha.

Late Vedic Change and Dharmashastras

The textbook describes a gradual decline in women’s status during the late Vedic period, about 1000–500 B.C. Women became more confined to the household. Purity and pollution ideas restricted participation in religious and social occasions. Lineage was increasingly traced through the male line, sons became sole heirs to family property, and women’s control over knowledge and social life narrowed. The son acquired greater value because he was expected to care for parents and, according to the belief described in the text, a male heir could save parents from the cycle of rebirth.

During the Age of Dharmashastras, generally placed at 500–200 B.C., codes of conduct were developed. Manu Smriti and Yagnavalkya Smriti are identified as two important law codes. The textbook says that Manu denied women freedom throughout life and described dependence on father, husband and son. It also notes an internal contradiction because Manu is also quoted as saying that where women are respected, the gods delight. Yagnavalkya prescribed early marriage, and the period is associated with child marriage, restrictions on widow remarriage, denial of education and the spread of sati. The text describes women as living in a condition of deep subordination.

2. Medieval Period and the Beginning of Modern Reform

Medieval Period — Core Concept

The textbook places the Medieval Age between about 1100 and 1700 A.D. and connects it with the emergence of Islam in India. It states that the period introduced values and practices that did not always improve women’s status. The purdah system, already present among some upper classes, spread to other sections. Its strict observance resulted in women’s seclusion from men outside the family and from the wider world. The text also notes the practice of jauhar or mass sati among Rajput women.

For Muslim family life, the textbook discusses marriage, divorce and inheritance under Muslim Personal Law (Shariat). It presents marriage as a contract and states that divorce was a man’s prerogative. It also says that lack of alimony could leave a divorced wife to support herself. The text connects limited access to education with the continued influence of patriarchal practices. During the medieval period, polygyny, sati, child marriage and the ill-treatment of widows are described as becoming more widespread.

Modern Period

The Modern Period begins with the onset of the 19th century and is divided by the textbook into the British Period (1800–1947) and the Period after Independence (1947 onwards). Although the British came to India earlier, the textbook states that major initiatives to address social inequality and women’s oppression appeared mainly in the 19th century.

British Period: Social Reform

A central turning point was the Sati Prohibition Act, 1829. The textbook highlights the role of Raja Rammohan Roy in the campaign against sati and the support of Governor-General Lord William Bentinck. Traditionalists resisted the Act by claiming that it interfered with religiously sanctioned custom. The text also states that the Act distinguished between voluntary and forced sati and did not immediately end the practice.

Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar led the movement for widow remarriage, contributing to the Widow Remarriage Act of 1856. The textbook says that the number of widow marriages did not increase greatly at once, but the Act opened the way for challenging a long-standing oppressive custom. Vidyasagar also supported women’s education.

Jyoti Ba Phule opened a school for girls in 1848 and, in 1852, established the first school for Dalit girls. He also supported widow marriage and established a home for protecting the children of widows. Maharshi Karve further promoted women’s education by establishing educational institutions for girls and women.

The Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929, associated with Harbildas Sarda, fixed the minimum marriage age at 14 years for girls and 18 years for boys according to the textbook. The text notes that the age was later raised by amendment in 1976. It also emphasizes women’s large-scale participation in the freedom movement and cites Gandhiji’s opposition to child marriage and dowry.

3. Independent India: Constitutional Provisions and Laws

Constitutional Foundation

After Independence, the Constitution of India laid the foundation for an order in which men and women are treated as equals. The textbook highlights several provisions:

• Article 14: equal rights and opportunities for men and women.
• Article 15(1): prohibition of discrimination against citizens on the ground of sex.
• Article 15(3): the State may make special provisions for women.
• Article 16(2): no citizen should be discriminated against in relation to employment under the State.

Directive Principles

The textbook also states that the Directive Principles support women’s welfare by providing for equal livelihood opportunities, equal pay for equal work, protection of the health and strength of women workers, and just and humane conditions of work including maternity provisions.

Major Laws Highlighted in the Chapter

The chapter additionally mentions the Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act, 1956, Immoral Traffic Prevention Act, 1956 (amended in 1986), Family Courts Act, 1984, and National Commission for Women Act, 1990.

4. Women’s Status After Independence: Indicators and Continuing Problems

Improvement and Remaining Gaps

The textbook states that during the decades following Independence, women’s position improved on several development indicators such as education and life expectancy. At the same time, important gaps continued in health care and work participation. The chapter therefore compares legal equality with actual social conditions.

Sex Ratio

Sex ratio means the number of females per 1,000 males. The chapter gives the following census figures:

The text notes a decline from 972 in 1901 to 927 in 1991, followed by a slight improvement to 933 in 2001. It identifies Kerala as the only state, according to the chapter, where women outnumbered men. It also expresses concern about the decline in the number of female infants and young girls.

Life Expectancy and Maternal Health

Female life expectancy at birth increased from 23.3 years in 1901 to 61.8 years by 1997. The chapter links this improvement mainly with better access to health care and lower fertility ratios in some states. However, it also reports concern about maternal mortality, noting an increase from 424 per 100,000 live births in 1992 to 540 in 1998. The text identifies early marriage, frequent childbirth, poor nutrition, household work, limited institutional births and inadequate safe antenatal care as important causes discussed in the chapter.

Female Literacy

Female literacy increased from 39.42% in 1991 to 54.16% in 2001. The textbook states that women’s access to education improved their ability to acquire skills and increase their income-earning capacities. It also notes wide state differences and continuing school drop-outs, especially at higher primary and high-school levels, due to domestic responsibilities and economic constraints.

Work Participation and Violence

The chapter gives female work participation as 23.3 compared with 57.6 for males, and states that only 17% of women workers were in the organized sector in the period covered. It says many women worked in low-paid and overworked jobs. The text also reports continuing violence against women despite legal measures, while noting growing awareness of women’s rights and the presence of a strong women’s movement addressing gender inequality and gender injustice.