Problems of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes

Core concept / simple definition

A social problem is a condition affecting a significant number of people in ways considered undesirable, about which it is felt that something can be done through collective social action. The chapter says that a situation becomes a problem only after people become aware of it. Social problems may arise when sections of society that are resource-poor and powerless fail to adjust to changing times, leading to social disorganization and discriminatory or inhuman behaviour.

Deprivation refers in the chapter to rights and freedom being taken away from poor and dependent sections. Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, other backward classes, women and children are described as deprived sections whose due rights and freedom may be denied.

Scheduled Castes: meaning and background

Scheduled Castes (SCs) are described as castes placed at the bottom of the traditional caste system. They usually performed unclean occupations and were treated as polluted or impure. Because of the idea of pollution, they were treated as untouchables. The chapter lists names used in literature such as Shudra, Das, Chaandal, Malezhha, Untouchables and Harijans.

On the recommendation of the Government of independent India, the President in October 1950 included a number of castes as Scheduled Castes in the Constitution under Articles 341 (SC) and 342 (ST). The chapter says this gave them benefits of development and welfare schemes. It states that there are more than 700 Scheduled Castes. Chamar, Dusadh, Dom, Pasi, Mehtar, Mahar, Balai and Adi-dravid are named as numerically dominant Scheduled Castes. The chapter also notes that Scheduled Castes identify themselves as Dalit.

The chapter states that SCs constitute nearly 15 percent of the total population. Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Bihar are described as areas of maximum concentration, while mountainous regions of U.P. and H.P., all north-eastern States, Karnataka and Maharashtra are described as having low concentration. SCs are also stated to have reservations in educational institutions, jobs, State Assemblies and Parliament.

Problem of untouchability (pollution)

The chapter explains that Scheduled Castes performed occupations such as carrying night soil and dead animals, cleaning urinals and cattle sheds, washing clothes, and performing certain duties at places of cremation. These occupations were treated as polluted or impure. Traditional untouchability produced several social disabilities.

1. No physical contact: Persons belonging to untouchable Scheduled Castes did not participate in village meetings and worship. They lived in a separate hamlet, their children did not attend school and play with children of higher castes, and they had to play a drum when passing through village streets.
2. Ban on common wells and tanks: They were not allowed to use common village wells and tanks. They had separate wells and ponds or depended on others to pour water for them.
3. Prohibited from entering temples: They were not allowed to enter temples for worship and were not supposed to hear religious discourses, offer prayer or study religious texts.
4. No service from other occupational castes: Priests, artisan castes, dhobi and dom did not render their services to persons of the untouchable castes.
5. Non-acceptance of cooked food: Food cooked by Scheduled Castes was not accepted by higher castes, and water from their hands was also not accepted.
6. Status incongruence and dependence-proneness: The stigma of untouchability and the constitutional status of Scheduled Castes were not congruent, while dependence on others continued for livelihood and survival.

Poverty generated problems

The chapter says Scheduled Castes were deprived of economic rights and therefore remained poor and dependent. Their poverty is explained through several linked conditions:

• Material deprivation: They were not allowed to have houses, land, animals, ornaments and other material possessions.
• Landlessness: They did not own land for residence and agriculture, lived in huts on the master's land and worked as agricultural labour, sometimes like bonded labour.
• Educational backwardness: Deprivation and poor socio-economic conditions kept many away from school. After independence, schools were opened for them, but the chapter says it was not possible to enroll all children.
• Employment and government service: Some entered government jobs such as sweeper, watchman and peon, while others received higher education and became well placed. The majority, however, survived as agricultural labourers and could be exploited in wage payment.
• Indebtedness and bonded labour: Poverty made some families borrow for consumption. The chapter says banks did not give loans for this purpose, so loans were taken from employers at high interest. Failure to repay capital and interest could end in bonded labour with loss of freedom and nominal wages.
• Health and nutrition: Poor housing, lack of sanitation, unsafe surroundings, lack of pucca wells and hand pumps, malnutrition and undernourishment are described as major problems.
• Atrocities: The chapter lists burning of houses, taking away animals, humiliation of women, severe beating and group killing among the forms of atrocities faced when people resist and demand social, economic or political rights.

Untouchability (Offences) Act 1955 and later amendment

Article 17 of the Constitution declares abolition of untouchability. The Untouchability (Offences) Act, 1955 declared untouchability an offence and banned it in matters such as employment, drinking water supply, worship, services in tea shops and hotels, travel by bus or train, use of public places, meetings of Gram Panchayat, refusal to sell goods or render services, and admission in hospital. The chapter states that the practice became punishable by fine and punishment.

The 1976 amendment enhanced punishment. For a first offence, the text gives one month to six months' imprisonment and fines of Rs. 100 to Rs. 500. For a second offence, it gives a fine of Rs. 200 to Rs. 500 and six months' imprisonment. For third and subsequent offences, it gives one year's imprisonment and a fine of Rs. 200 to Rs. 10,000. The chapter concludes that despite prohibitive measures, untouchability continued as a social reality in rural areas and was also prevalent in urban areas at least at the mental level.

Core concept / simple definition

Scheduled Tribes (STs) are communities described as outside the caste system. They live in hills, forests, coastal and desert areas and even on islands. They have their own culture, social organization and political system. Over time, some adopted Hinduism, Islam and Christianity. Tribal art, dance and craft are described as having intrinsic value.

The chapter says both polygamy and monogamy are prevalent among tribals, while some practice polyandry, for example Toda and Khasa of Jaunsar Bawar. A large number of tribal societies are patrilineal, while matriliny is also found among tribes such as Khasi, Jaintia and Garo.

Traditional economy

The traditional tribal economy is characterized by gathering, hunting, fishing, shifting cultivation and agriculture. Tribals have weekly markets called haat. The chapter contrasts earlier barter with the present use of money as the medium of exchange. Traditional economic activity is described as being for subsistence, not profit.

Population and regional distribution

The text states that there are around 461 Scheduled Tribes, of which 75 most backward communities were identified as Primitive Tribal Groups (PTGs) on the basis of low population, low literacy and pre-agricultural technology. STs represent approximately 8 percent of the country's population. Scheduled Tribes are found in the Himalayan region, Middle India, Western India, South India and the Island region. Nearly half of the tribal population is said to reside in the Middle Indian region comprising Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Orissa and West Bengal.

The chapter states that twelve States/Union Territories have more than one million tribals and that Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Chandigarh and Pondicherry have no tribal population. It also identifies Madhya Pradesh with Chhattisgarh as having 15.4 million tribals, stated as 22.7 percent of the country's tribal population. Manipur is given as having the maximum percentage of tribal population at 94.75 percent, while Uttar Pradesh is given as having the minimum at 0.21 percent. STs are stated to receive reservation benefits in educational institutions, jobs, State Assemblies and Lok Sabha.

Cultural change and identity

Most Scheduled Tribes are described as followers of tribal religion, Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam and Christianity. The adoption of other faiths is said to have contributed to the giving up of some tribal customs, traditions, festivals, art and dance. Institutions such as the Akhra and youth dormitory are mentioned as examples of cultural traits that have become extinct or fallen into disuse. Marriage of tribal girls with non-tribal boys, entry of outsiders, and division of tribals into different religious groups are presented in the chapter as contributing to identity problems. Culture contact, industrialization and urbanisation have also resulted in loss of tribal ways of life.

Problems connected with forest and agriculture

1. Problems related to forest: Forest tribes depended on hunting, gathering, shifting cultivation and artefacts made from forest material. Forest policies and regulations are said to have taken away traditional rights over forests, adversely affecting food gathering, hunting, shifting cultivation and cottage industry.
2. Problem of agriculture: Agricultural tribes include Munda, Oraon, Ho and Santhal. Land near hills, foothills and forests is described as downland (Don) and upland (Tanr). Good varieties of paddy are cultivated in Donland by wet cultivation. Maize, millet, marua, arahar, Tisi and mustard are sown in Tanr land by dry cultivation. There is no assured irrigation, so Rabi and Garma crops are negligible. The chapter says agriculture does not provide employment or sufficient food throughout the year and crops may sometimes be destroyed by wild animals.

Six linked problems and their effects

1. Land alienation: Since the British period, tribal lands have been acquired for roads, railways, offices, colonies, markets, hospitals and post offices. Outsiders, contractors and moneylenders have purchased tribal land, and the chapter also mentions land transfer connected with marriages and purchases by richer tribals. The text cites the Chotanagpur Tenancy Act 1908 and Santhal Pargana Tenancy Act 1948 as protective tenancy laws, but says land alienation has continued.
2. Indebtedness and bonded labour: Daily wages may not provide work throughout the year and payment may be irregular. Tribals therefore borrow from mahajans at high interest. Inability to repay may lead to bonded labour at nominal wages.
3. Health and nutrition: Forest food once provided vitamins, minerals, protein and carbohydrate. Bans on hunting and gathering, together with forest depletion, are linked to malnutrition and under-nourishment. Poverty, an unhygienic environment and limited access to private or public treatment worsen the problem. The chapter notes reliance on local traditional healers.
4. Lack of communication: Remote residence creates difficulty in commuting. Welfare and development information takes time to reach tribals, contributing to lack of awareness of rights and ignorance of development programmes.
5. Migration and its effects: STs migrate within or outside the State for work and wages, including construction sites, brick-kilns, small industries and agriculture. As migrant labour, they are described as exploited and oppressed, sometimes receiving less than the wages required by the Minimum Wages Act and working long hours.
6. Lack of education: Poverty makes immediate subsistence more important than education for some families. The Government has opened Ashram schools, but enrollment remains difficult; children may have to work at home, causing absenteeism and dropouts. Female illiteracy is described as more acute.

Displacement and problem of identity

Displacement: Major industries, thermal power and hydraulic projects have required acquisition of tribal villages. The chapter names HEC at Ranchi, Bokaro Steel City, Jamshedpur Industrial Complex, Patratu Thermal Power, Durgapur, Bhilai and Rourkela Industrial Complexes. Although compensation and rehabilitation schemes are mentioned, the chapter states that tribals neither always received compensation nor were properly rehabilitated; some families became extinct and some lived in slum areas.

Identity: The chapter says Scheduled Tribes have been conscious of their identity since the British period and organized movements against zamindars, jagirdars and British rule. It mentions the Maler revolt (1770), Ho revolt (1821), Great Kol revolt (1831), Santhal revolt (1855), and participation in the freedom struggle of 1857.

Welfare response stated in the chapter

The chapter states that Scheduled Tribes receive benefits from development and welfare programmes of the State. A special programme called the Tribal Sub-plan was introduced in the Fifth Plan period. The chapter also notes reservations for STs and records continuing demands for autonomy of the regions in which they live and for employment of local people.