The United Nations

Origins, Meaning and Purposes of the United Nations

The United Nations (UN) is presented in the chapter as an important international institution and a world organization whose activities touch many aspects of life. It was established in 1945. The chapter explains that the two World Wars of the first half of the twentieth century caused enormous loss of life and strengthened the determination of leaders and people to create institutions for peaceful world order.

Before the complete defeat of the Axis powers, the Allied powers led by the USA, former Soviet Union and UK began planning an organisation to replace the League of Nations. President Roosevelt and Prime Minister Winston Churchill signed the Atlantic Charter in August 1941. Later conferences at Moscow, Teheran, Dumbarton Oaks and Yalta discussed proposals. The San Francisco Conference in early 1945 finalised and signed the Charter. The United Nations was established on 24 October 1945, observed as UN Day.

Four broad purposes of the UN

Guiding principles

The chapter gives foremost importance to equality among countries, whether big or small or strong or weak. The UN normally does not interfere in the domestic matters of member countries. Member states are expected to settle disputes peacefully, avoid threats or use of force against another member and assist the UN in enforcement of peace.

The chapter also stresses that the UN is a political body serving member governments in global politics. Since governments and international circumstances change, the organisation cannot act in a rigid or mechanically uniform manner. Its role is therefore marked by flexibility and pragmatism.

Principal Organs: Composition and Functions

The chapter identifies six principal organs: the General Assembly, Security Council, Economic and Social Council, Trusteeship Council, International Court of Justice and Secretariat. Although linked, each has a distinct composition and role.

General Assembly

The General Assembly is described as the central body and is sometimes called the world parliament. Every member has one vote. It may discuss broad matters such as peace and security, environmental protection, economic development, decolonisation, disarmament, refugees and global commons. It mainly makes recommendations. Important matters require a two-thirds majority, while procedural matters require a simple majority. It approves the UN budget, elects members of organs and appoints the Secretary-General. Its declarations are not binding, but the chapter notes their moral and political weight.

Security Council

The Security Council is presented as the most powerful decision-making body, with primary responsibility for international peace and security. The five permanent members are China, France, Russia, the UK and the USA. The ten non-permanent members are elected by the General Assembly for two years. On substantive matters, nine affirmative votes must include the concurring vote of the permanent members. A negative vote by a permanent member is the veto; abstention is not treated as a veto.

When peace is threatened, the Council may determine the aggressor, recommend peaceful settlement or use extraordinary measures such as economic sanctions. When it takes binding decisions under the circumstances described in the chapter, member states are expected to carry them out. The chapter also describes peacekeeping operations, in which soldiers from member countries are sent to troubled areas with the agreement of the governments concerned.

Other organs

The Economic and Social Council promotes international economic and social cooperation and coordinates specialised agencies. The Trusteeship Council supervised the trusteeship system and is described as inactive because the trust territories had become free. The International Court of Justice, or World Court, is located at The Hague. The Secretariat consists of international staff; the Secretary-General is appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council for a five-year term.

UN, Peace, Decolonisation and Racism

The chapter links the UN’s peace role with efforts to end colonialism and racism. At the time the UN was established, much of Africa and Asia was still under colonial rule. The UN treated ending colonialism as necessary for world peace and progress.

Trust territories and decolonisation

The chapter distinguishes trust territories, for which the UN had direct responsibility, from territories administered by western colonial powers. Trust territories were to remain under the trusteeship system until their people could freely determine their future status. Examples listed include Cameroon, Nauru, New Guinea, Pacific Islands, Rwanda-Urundi, Somaliland, Tanganyika and Togoland. According to the chapter, all trust territories became free by 1994.

A major landmark was the Declaration on Decolonisation, 1960, which demanded immediate independence for colonial territories and populations. The chapter states that sustained UN pressure helped many territories become free, while also clarifying that the right of self-determination in this context applies to people under foreign colonial rule.

Opposition to apartheid

The UN’s opposition to apartheid in South Africa is another major example. The chapter traces UN attention to the issue from 1946, later pressure through international measures, a Security Council arms ban, the ending of apartheid policy in 1993, the release of Nelson Mandela, repeal of apartheid laws and internationally supervised elections in 1994. The chapter presents this as an important UN contribution against racial discrimination.

Promotion of Human Rights

The promotion of a worldwide human-rights culture is presented as another major contribution of the UN. The chapter lists a long series of declarations and conventions and treats the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), adopted in 1948, as the first among the UN declarations. Human Rights Day is observed on 10 December.

The UDHR covers civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights without discrimination. Although the chapter notes that the Declaration itself is not binding on governments, it inspired two legally binding covenants: one on economic, social and cultural rights and another on civil and political rights. The chapter says these became applicable to signatory states from 1976 and, together with the UDHR, form the International Bill of Rights.

The chapter also notes that the UN has adopted declarations and covenants aimed at stopping torture and racial discrimination and at protecting vulnerable groups such as children, women and migrant workers. It also convenes periodic human-rights conferences.

Need for Restructuring the Security Council and Overall Assessment

The chapter argues that although the UN has performed a responsible role, some of its structures have not changed in line with changes in the world. The Security Council is used as the main example. Its 15-member arrangement, including five permanent members and ten non-permanent members, dates from 1945. The chapter observes that many Asian and African countries were not members at that time, while UN membership had later increased substantially.

The text therefore presents a case for increasing the number of permanent and non-permanent members so that different countries feel more represented. India’s claim is discussed in the chapter in connection with its UN peacekeeping contribution, active role in peace-making, founding membership, large population and democratic character. Japan, Germany, Brazil and Nigeria are also identified as claimants in the textbook discussion.

The chapter’s overall assessment is that the UN has both advantages and limitations. It has contributed to world peace, decolonisation, opposition to racism and the promotion of human rights. It generally works through diplomatic and non-violent means, while sanctions and military action are described as relatively rare. Despite its limitations, the chapter presents the UN as a unique forum through which humanity can pursue peace, prosperity, equality and justice.