NIOS History (315) • Module 4

Indian National Movement

Lesson 21 Study & Exam Master
NIOS History (315) • Module 4: Contemporary India

Lesson 21: Indian National Movement

An exhaustive synthesis detailing the multi-stranded freedom struggle: from Moderate Constitutionalism (1885–1905) and Extremist Swadeshi Agitation to Revolutionary Action, Gandhian Mass Satyagrahas, Left Ideology, Quit India, and the final Triumph & Tragedy of 1947.

01

The Indian National Congress & Extremist Swadeshi Agitation

1. Formation of the INC (1885) & The Moderate Era

The Indian National Congress (INC) was formed in December 1885 by 72 politically conscious educated delegates at Bombay. Retired ICS officer A.O. Hume played a crucial role in its establishment. Key early leaders included Pherozeshah Mehta, Badruddin Tyabji, W.C. Bonnerjee, Surendranath Banerjea, Anandamohan Bose, and Romesh Chandra Dutt.

Preceding regional bodies included the Indian Association (Calcutta), Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, Bombay Presidency Association, and Madras Mahajan Sabha. The INC's unique goal was creating an all-India national consciousness across diverse cultural lines.

Core Demands of the Early Moderates (1885–1905):
  • Economic Critique: Formulated by Dadabhai Naoroji (Drain Theory) showing British rule was impoverishing India rather than modernizing it.
  • Legislative Reform: Expansion of Legislative Councils with increased Indian representation and control.
  • Administrative Reforms: Indianization of Civil Services via simultaneous exams in England and India.
  • Public Grievances: Tariff favors for Indian cotton, opposition to Vernacular Press Act, reform of forest laws, and ending indentured labor in Assam plantations.

2. Partition of Bengal (1905) & Swadeshi / Boycott Movement

In 1905, Governor-General Lord Curzon partitioned Bengal along religious lines (separating Hindu-majority West Bengal from Muslim-majority East Bengal) to break the political solidarity of Calcutta intelligentsia. The movement evolved through distinct phases:

  • Formal Proclamation: August 7, 1905 at Calcutta Townhall with the Boycott Resolution.
  • Day of Mourning: October 16, 1905 observed with fasts, singing Bande Mataram, and tying Rakhis for unity.
  • Extremist Leadership: Bal Gangadhar Tilak (Bombay/Pune), Lala Lajpat Rai & Ajit Singh (Punjab), Syed Haider Raza (Delhi), and Chidambaram Pillai (Madras).
  • Methods: Boycott of foreign cloth, public bonfires, picketing, promotion of Swadeshi industries, samitis, and cultural symbols (Ganapati/Shivaji festivals in MH, Jatras in Bengal).
  • Outcome: Partition was revoked in 1911, but the British shifted the Imperial capital from Calcutta to Delhi to lessen Bengal's political influence.
02

Revolutionary Phase I & The Home Rule Movement (1907–1918)

1. Surat Split (1907) & Early Revolutionary Action

Rift over council entry and boycott intensity led to the Surat Split (1907) between Moderates and Extremists. Following government repression, secret revolutionary societies (Anushilan Samiti, Jugantar) took up political violence:

Domestic Operations

• 1908: Khudiram Bose & Prafulla Chaki bombed a carriage targeting Judge Kingsford at Muzaffarpur.
• 1912: Rashbehari Bose & Sachindranath Sanyal attempted assassination of Viceroy Lord Hardinge in Delhi.
• 1915: Bagha Jatin (Jatin Mukherjee) led Bengal revolutionaries; martyred at Balasore, Odisha.

International Operations

• London: Shyamji Krishnaverma (India House), V.D. Savarkar, Madanlal Dhingra (killed Curzon-Wyllie, 1909).
• Europe: Madame Cama published Bande Mataram in Paris; Virendranath Chattopadhyaya in Berlin.
• USA/Ghadr (1913): Founded in San Francisco by Sohan Singh Bhakna & Har Dayal.
• Komagata Maru (1914): Japanese ship carrying 351 Sikh/Muslim immigrants turned away from Canada; clashed with British police at Budge Budge, Calcutta.

2. Home Rule Movement (1916)

To revive nationalist momentum during World War I, two Home Rule Leagues were established on the pattern of the Irish Home Rule Movement:

Tilak's Home Rule League (Apr 1916) Active in Maharashtra (excl. Bombay city), Karnataka, Central Provinces, and Berar.
Annie Besant's League (Sept 1916) Headquartered at Adyar (Madras); covered the rest of India with widespread lectures and reading rooms.
03

Gandhian Mass Movements: Early Experiments & Non-Cooperation

1. Gandhi's Initial Experiments (1917–1918)

Mahatma Gandhi returned to India from South Africa in 1915 and applied non-violent Satyagraha in three localized struggles:

Champaran (1917 - Bihar)

Invited by Raj Kumar Shukla; agitated against European planters enforcing the Tinkathia system (mandatory indigo on 3/20th land). System abolished.

Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918)

Dispute over withdrawal of 'Plague Bonus'. Gandhi undertook his first fast unto death; secured a 35% wage hike for workers.

Kheda Satyagraha (1918)

Peasants suffered crop failure (<1/4th yield). Supported by Vallabhbhai Patel and Indulal Yajnik; revenue demand suspended for poor peasants.

2. Rowlatt Satyagraha & Jallianwalla Bagh Massacre (1919)

To crush post-war dissent, the British passed the repressive Rowlatt Act (1919) authorizing detention without trial. Gandhi organized the Satyagraha Sabha and called for a nationwide hartal on April 6, 1919.

Jallianwalla Bagh Tragedy (April 13, 1919): On Baisakhi day, an unarmed public meeting at Amritsar protesting the arrest of Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr. Satyapal was brutally fired upon by General Dyer. Official death toll was 379 (actual higher). Rabindranath Tagore surrendered his Knighthood in protest.

3. Non-Cooperation & Khilafat Movement (1920–1922)

The Khilafat Movement (led by Ali Brothers—Shaukat & Mohammad Ali) merged with Gandhi's Non-Cooperation Movement on three issues: Khilafat Wrong, Punjab Wrong, and Swaraj. Formally adopted at Special Calcutta Session (Sept 1920) and confirmed at Nagpur Session (Dec 1920).

  • Programs: Renunciation of titles, boycott of courts (lawyers CR Das, Motilal Nehru, Patel quit practice), schools, foreign goods, and liquor picketing. Handspun Khadi promoted.
  • Chauri Chaura Incident: On February 5, 1922, a violent mob burned a police station at Chauri Chaura (Gorakhpur, UP), killing 22 policemen. Gandhi abruptly suspended the movement on February 12, 1922.
  • Swaraj Party (1923): Formed by C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru ("Pro-Changers") to contest council elections and disrupt colonial business from within, opposing "No-Changers" (Rajendra Prasad, Patel).
04

Revolutionary Phase II, Simon Boycott & Civil Disobedience

1. HSRA & Revolutionary Resurgence (1924–1930)

In 1924, HRA was formed in UP (Kakori Train Action, 1925). Reorganized in 1928 at Ferozeshah Kotla (Delhi) as Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) by Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekhar Azad, and Sukhdev under socialist influence:

  • Saunders Murder (1928): Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Azad killed police officer Saunders to avenge Lala Lajpat Rai's death during Simon Commission protest lathi charge.
  • Central Assembly Bombing (1929): Bhagat Singh & B.K. Dutt threw harmless bombs in the Assembly against Trade Disputes & Public Safety Bills ("To make the deaf hear").
  • Chittagong Armoury Raid (1930): Led by Surya Sen ('Master Da') in Bengal under the Indian Republican Army.
  • Martyrdom: Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru executed on March 23, 1931.

2. Simon Commission & Purna Swaraj (1928–1929)

The all-white Simon Commission (1928) was boycotted nationwide with slogans of "Go Back Simon". At Lahore (Dec 1929 INC Session), under Jawaharlal Nehru's presidency, Congress adopted Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence) and declared January 26, 1930 as Independence Day.

3. Civil Disobedience Movement (1930–1934)

Gandhi launched the movement with the historic Dandi Salt March (March 12 – April 6, 1930), walking 240 miles from Sabarmati to Dandi to break the salt law:

Regional Centers

• NWFP: Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan ('Frontier Gandhi') led Khudai Khidmatgars ('Red Shirts').
• Tamil Nadu: C. Rajagopalachari marched from Trichinopoly to Vedaranniyam.
• Malabar: K. Kelappan marched from Calicut to Payannur.

Pacts & Resolutions

• Gandhi-Irwin Pact (March 5, 1931): Truce signed; release of non-violent prisoners, right to make salt.
• Karachi Session (1931): Presided by Patel; passed historic resolutions on Fundamental Rights & National Economic Policy.

05

1935 Act, Quit India Movement & Independence (1935–1947)

1. Government of India Act 1935 & 1937 Elections

The 1935 Act abolished Dyarchy in provinces, introduced Provincial Autonomy, and expanded franchise. In the 1937 elections, Congress formed absolute majority governments in 5 out of 11 provinces (and ruled in 8). Resigned in late 1939 protesting Britain declaring India a belligerent in WWII without consent.

2. Quit India Movement (August 1942)

Following the failure of the Cripps Mission, the AICC meeting at Gowalia Tank (Bombay) passed the Quit India Resolution on August 8, 1942. Gandhi gave the mantra "Do or Die". Early morning on August 9, all top leaders were arrested under Operation Zero Hour. The movement turned spontaneously mass-driven with parallel governments (e.g., Ballia, Tamluk, Satara).

3. Freedom and Partition (August 1947)

Post-war erosion of colonial support (INA trials, RIN Mutiny 1946) forced British exit. India achieved independence on August 15, 1947. However, colonial divide-and-rule culminated in the Triumph and Tragedy of partition into two nation-states—India and Pakistan—accompanied by massive communal violence.